Лексикологический анализ текста Ray Bradbury ‘Dandelion wine’

There are three main types of motivation: phonetic, morphological and semantic [12].
Phonetic motivation is a direct connection between the sound form of a word and its meaning. There are two types of phonetic motivation: sound imitation and sound symbolism. Examples: wind, dripped, tapped, whirling.
Morphological motivation is a direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the meaning of the word. Examples: renewal (re-+new+al); reinhabitated (re-+inhabit+ at+ed).
Semantic motivation is based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word. Example: burn a hole in something – to destroy part of something in an explosion; to damage a plan or idea so that it cannot succeed, or so that people no longer believe it.
18. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relation of words. Semantic relationships of words (Hypero-hyponymic, partitive)
1. Paradigmatic relations are the relationships that a linguistic unit has with units by which it may be replaced. Paradigmatic relations exist between words which make up one of the subgroups of vocabulary units, e.g. sets of synonyms, lexico-semantic groups. Paradigmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses through its interrelation with other members of the subgroup in question. For example: be – being – was.
2. Syntagmatic relations are the relationships that a linguistic unit has wnh other units in the stretch of language in Which it occurs. Syntagmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses when it is used in combination with other words. For example, the meanings of the verb to pinch can be understood from the following contexts [13]: Grandfather pinched his chin. Examples:
Nothing else in the world would do but the pure waters which had been summoned from the lakes far away and the sweet fields of grassy dew on early morning, lifted to the open sky, carried in laundered clusters nine hundred miles, brushed with wind, electrified with high voltage, and condensed upon cool air.
3. Hypero-hyponymic relation of words is genus-species semantic relations. Examples: Color (hyponym) – blue (hyperonim), iron (hyperonim).
4. Partitive relation of word is relation of the whole and parts. There are no examples in this excerpt.

19. Synonyms
There are a great many definitions of the term "synonyms", but there is no universally accepted one. Among numerous definitions of the term in our linguistics the most comprehensive and full one is suggested by I.V. Arnold: "Synonyms – are two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical meaning, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape , shades of meaning, connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valence peculiar to one of the elements in a synonymic group" [8].
The outstanding Russian philologist A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the classification of synonyms into 3 types [15]:
Ideographic synonyms are distinguished either by additional meanings and accompanying ideas, or by use and compatibility with other words.
Examples:
To go – to move or travel somewhere; to walk – to move forward by putting one foot in front of the other and then repeating the action.
See – to notice someone or something using your eyes; stare – to look at someone or something very directly for a long time
Stylistic synonyms are used in different styles of language. There are no examples in this excerpt: enemy (neutral) – adversary (literary) – opponent (formal) – foe (poetic).
Absolute synonyms are words coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are rare in a language. They are usually technical and scientific terms. Examples: Grandfather – Grandpa.
20. Antonyms
Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition. Antonyms are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic characteristics and in this respect they are similar to such semantic classes as synonyms, lexical sets, lexico-semantic groups. There exist different classifications of antonyms [12]:
Contradictory antonyms (complementary antonyms) – are mutually opposed (exclusive) and deny one another.
Examples: Dead – Alive
Dead (adjective) – not now alive.
Alive (adjective) – living, not dead.
cold – warm
Conversive antonyms (conversives) – are words which denote one and the same situation as viewed from different points of view, with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles. Example: seen – unseen (if we don’t give someone to see).
Vectorial antonyms (directional antonyms) – are words denoting differently directed actions, features. There are no examples in this excerpt:
To learn – To forget.
Root antonyms (absolute antonyms) – are antonyms having different roots.
Examples: won – lost.
Derivational antonyms– are antonyms having the same root but different affixes. There are no examples in this excerpt: Hope – Hopeless.

21. Componential analysis
Componential analysis of meaning – the analysis of a set of related linguistic items, especially word meanings, into combinations of features in terms of which each item may be compared with every other [12]. Examples:
to change position Using transport Using legs Speed of movement Move + + + + Go + - + + Walk + - + +

22. Word formation
Word Formation (Derivatology) – linguistic discipline, exploring formal and semantic relations between the same root in words of language: first of all relations of derivation. This is a section of modern English in which through various word-formation elements form new words, used in speech [8].
Productive types:
1. Affixation – morphological process consisting in affixing affixes to roots or basics. Affixes include prefixes and suffixes.
Prefixal method - used in word formation for expressions of various meanings, most often spatial and denial values.
Suffix method – used to express various derivational meanings and the formation of parts of speech.
Examples with prefixes:
Un: unmotioned, untouchable, unguessed
Dis: disinhabited
Re: replaced, renewal, reinhabitated
A: alive
Examples with suffixes:
-ful: careful
-able: untouchable
-er: laundered
-ledge: knowledge
-al: arrival, continental
-ish: childish
-ing: surveying
-ed: unmotioned, questioned, agitated, reinhabitated
-tion: civilization
-er, -ness: wilderness, wideness
2. Composition – based on a mix of two roots, the words formed by the merger of the two foundations. Word built this way acquires a new meaning.
Examples:
tip+ toe= tiptoe
butter+ flies= butterflies
still + green = still-green
upstairs + down = upstairs-and-down
water+ melon= watermelons
tortoise + shell = tortoise-shell
down + creek = down-creek
3. Conversion – this way of word formation speech image words, bearing in mind the initial words of the form.
Examples:
Bleeding (gerund) - the bleeding; to play – a play
4. Reduction – is the most productive among the irregular ways of forming morphological neologisms that reflect tendency to rationalize the language, to save language effort.
There is no examples in this excerpt:
«IMHO» (in by humble opinion)
«CAD» (computer-aided design)
Unproductive types:
1. Alternationis– the phenomenon of a phoneme or morpheme exhibiting variation in its phonological realization.
Examples: blood (n) – bleed (v); life (n) – live (v).
2. Reduction– is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.
Examples: history – story.
3. Stress-shift – word stress changes.
There is no examples in this excerpt:
to export [ek'spɔːt] – export ['ekspɔːt]
to permit [pə'mɪt] – permit ['pɜːmɪt]

23. Stone-wall type problem
According to I.V. Arnold the "so-called stone wall problem concerns the status of the complexes like stone wall, cannon ball or rose garden. Noun premodifiers of other nouns often become so closely fused together with what they modify that it is difficult to say whether the result is a compound or a syntactical free phrase" [8].
Examples: the lake shore – берег озера; secret conclave – тайный конклав; the pure waters – чистые воды; cellar gloom – темный погреб.

24. Phraseology
A phraseological unit can be defined as "a reproduced and idiomatic (non-motivated) or partially motivated unit built up according to the model of free word-groups (or sentences) and semantical and syntactically brought into correlation with words" [13].
Types of phraseological units:
Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups, e.g. as mad as a hatter - utterly mad; white elephant - an expensive but useless thing; take up the slack – to do an extra amount of work that someone else is unable or unwilling to do; for the birds – worthless; undesirable. (There are no examples in this excerpt).
Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit. There are no examples in this excerpt: get (something) off (one's) chest – to reveal or discuss something that has caused one emotional discomfort and that one has repressed, kept hidden, or neglected to discuss earlier; burn a hole in; Here we go.
Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically. Examples: run amok – to suddenly become very angry or excited and start behaving violently, especially in a public place; to be ready;
Phraseological expression is a stable by form and usage semantically divisible construction, which components are words with free meanings. There are no examples in this excerpt: take a turn for the better / worse – become better / worse.

25. Stylistic devises
Stylistic device is «a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and / or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalised status and thus becoming a generative model» [9]. There are different types of stylistic devices:
Еpithet – a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterise and object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties [16].
Examples: the golden tide, golden flowers, the fine and golden words, miserable room, the sweet fields; clear, faintly blue silk; dank twilight, the untouchable sky.
Reversed epithets based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa [16].
Examples: the soft gleam of flowers, a summer of unguessed wonders.
Comparison is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the word "like" or "as".
Example: like a captain, like leaking rowboats, like a smile, like a sudden patch of sunlight in the dark, like a June goddess, like a continent of butterflies breathing on the wind, The water was silk in the cup; The words were summer on the tongue.
Metaphor – transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures [16].
Examples: He questioned the wind and the untouchable sky and the lawn; The flowers that flooded the world, dripped off lawns, tapped softly and agitated themselves; the ravine edged up, threatening to swamp garages, devour ancient cars; the pure waters had been lifted to the open sky, carried in laundered clusters nine hundred miles, brushed with wind, electrified with high voltage. The wine was summer caught and stoppered. Hold summer in your hand, pour summer in a glass.
Personification – a metaphor that involves likeness between inanimate and animate object [16].
Examples: a season dead ahead, fine fair month ran.
Climax is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance [16]. Examples:
Five hundred, a thousand, two thousand easy.
Taking something of the east wind and the west wind and the north wind and the south.
It softened the lip and the throat and the heart, if drunk.


Bibliography
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Электронный ресурс: https://studfile.net/preview/4326694/
Электронный ресурс: https://www.native-english.ru/grammar/english-nouns-cases










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